Civil War history

“It is not two years since the sight of a person who had lost one of his lower limbs was an infrequent occurrence. Now, alas! There are few of us who have not a cripple among our friends, if not in our own families. A mechanical art which provided for an occasional and exceptional want has become a great and active branch of industry. War unmakes legs, and human skill must supply their places as it best may.” ~Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., “The Human Wheel, Its Spokes and Felloes”  If necessity is the mother of invention, it should come as no surprise that the Civil War, which produced some 45,000 amputee veterans, also prompted major progress in the development and production of artificial limbs. One of the characters in my novel Widow of Gettysburg is the recipient of one of these limbs. Let’s take a closer look at what was involved in this rehabilitation of amputee veterans. (You can see more on amputations in a previous blog post, here.) Once the stump was healed after amputation and the patient able to do without dressings, the surgeons' work was finished, and the patient was left to shift for himself in securing the best apparatus. But not everyone was a good candidate for a prosthetic. If the limb was taken off at the joint, such as the hip or shoulder, there was no stump to which an artificial limb could be attached. The surgeon may have performed the operation too high or too low on the limb for a good fit to be possible. Also, if the stump was prone to frequent infection, it would have been too painful to attach an artificial limb to it. For those who could pursue a prosthetic, in the North, the most popular artificial leg was a “Palmer” leg, named for Benjamin Franklin Palmer, who patented the design. A previous design by James Potts was made of wood, leather, and cat-gut tendons hinging the knee and ankle joints, and dubbed “The Clapper” for the clicking sound of its motion. Palmer improved upon this design with a heel spring in 1846, and his “American leg” was produced continuously through World War 1. Palmer’s leg cost about $150, a prohibitive amount for the average private, whose pay was about $13 per month. Add to that the cost of travel and lodging expenses to see a specialist, and the number of amputees who could afford it went down even further. The cost of an artificial limb for Confederate veterans was between $300-$500, due to the soaring inflation. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1196", "attributes":{"class":"media-image size-full wp-image-2943", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"496", "height":"600", "alt":"Wooden leg"}}]] Wooden leg   Since the majority of veterans had been farmers, planters, or skilled laborers before the war, the need for artificial limbs was, indeed, a crippling problem. To help address it, the U.S. government appropriated $15,000 in 1862 to pay for limbs for maimed soldiers and sailors. In January 1864, a civilian association in Richmond was established to pay for artificial limbs for Confederate amputees. After the war in 1866, North Carolina became the first state to start a program for thousands of amputees to receive artificial limbs. The program offered veterans free accommodations and transportation by rail; 1,550 veterans contacted the program by mail. During the same year, the State of Mississippi spent more than half its yearly budget providing veterans with artificial limbs. Many entrepreneurs who developed artificial limbs were Civil War veteran amputees themselves. In fact, one of the most successful pioneers in prosthetics was Confederate veteran James Edward Hanger, whose amputation in West Virginia was the first recorded amputation of the Civil War. He was 18 years old at the time. Union surgeons discovered him wounded and performed the amputation, giving him a standard issue replacement leg: a solid piece of wood that made walking clunky and difficult. Hanger’s adjustments included better hinging and flexing abilities using rust-proof levers and rubber pads. He also used whittled barrel staves to make the limb lighter-weight. He won the Confederate contract to produce limbs, and by 1890, had moved his headquarters to Washington, D.C., and opened satellite offices in four other cities. The company he founded – Hanger, Inc. – remains a key player in prosthetics and orthotics today. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1197", "attributes":{"class":"media-image aligncenter wp-image-2942", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"550", "height":"398", "alt":"hange-decker"}}]] The Civil War-era commitment to support veterans continues today through programs of the VA and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to ensure ongoing progress in prosthetics design. The war set the prosthetics industry on a course that would ultimately lead to today’s quasi-bionic limbs that look like the real thing and can often perform some tasks even better. For further reading: Hasegawa, Guy R. Mending Broken Soldiers: The Union and Confederate Programs to Supply Artificial Limbs. Southern Illinois University Press, 2012.

"Erin's Pride" by artist Dale Gallon   I didn't expect to become so fascinated with the plight of Irish Americans when I began writing my first Civil War novel, Wedded to War. But as I researched 19th-century New York City, where my heroine Charlotte Waverly lived, I was totally drawn in to the story of how "the other half" lived. My heart broke as I read about immigrants trying to make ends meet in the city, and how Irish soldiers' families struggled to survive when the paychecks were not forthcoming. I created the character of Ruby O'Flannery to show a contrast between the privileged women of New York City, who had to fight to get their hands dirty as nurses, and the immigrant women whose hands were dirty with work all the time, and yet never seemed to have enough. Ruby's husband Matthew fought in the very real and very Irish 69th New York regiment. The 69th fought honorably at First Bull Run, the Seven Days Battle, Malvern Hill, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and was present at Lee's surrender at Appomattox. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1176", "attributes":{"class":"media-image wp-image-2872", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"400", "height":"618", "alt":"Monument to the Irish Brigade at Gettysburg"}}]] Monument to the Irish Brigade at Gettysburg   Ruby's story in Wedded to War captured so many readers' hearts they begged me to finish her story in a future novel, which is why she comes back in Yankee in Atlanta, the third book in the Heroines Behind the Lines Civil War series. Toward the beginning of Yankee, we see through Ruby's eyes another piece of Irish American history: the New York City draft riots of July 1863. It was the largest civil and racial insurrection in American history, aside from the Civil War itself. What began as a protest against the draft which called up working-class Irishmen devolved into a race riot against free blacks of New York City, who were not eligible to be drafted at all. The four-day riot killed hundreds of people, destroyed blocks of property, and ended only when Union troops came to quell the violence with howitzers, muskets, and bayonets. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1177", "attributes":{"class":"media-image wp-image-2873", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"550", "height":"522", "alt":"Depiction of the Draft Riots, Illustrated London News"}}]] Depiction of the Draft Riots, Illustrated London News   Seven Union generals were Irish-born while an estimated 150,000 Irish-Americans fought for the Union during the war. Although significantly fewer Irish lived in the Confederacy, six Confederate generals were Irish-born. There is no doubt that Irishmen and the families who supported them made a significant impact in the Civil War.  

[[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"758", "attributes":{"class":"media-image aligncenter wp-image-833", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"600", "height":"913", "alt":"valentines-day2"}}]] Happy Valentine's Day! I firmly believe that Valentine's Day should be a day to celebrate all the people we love--parents, siblings, children, friends--not just sweethearts and spouses. I hope each and every one of you feel loved and cherished today! Now, having said that, I'd like to share with you a Civil War Valentine card that does celebrate romantic love, and then the real treat--the absolute best love letter ever. Courtesy of the Kansas Historical Society: MY LOVE ‘Mid bugle’s blast and cannon’s roar, And ‘mid the battles angry flame; ‘Mid clashing sabres red with gore, I fondly breathe thy much-loved name. I feel thee near at dead of night, When I my vigil lone am keeping– Thy image guards me, angel bright, In dreams when wearied I am sleeping, Each northward wind wafts on its breath, To thee a yearning kiss of mine– On glory’s field or bed of death, I live or die thy Valentine. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"930", "attributes":{"class":"media-image aligncenter wp-image-834", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"600", "height":"436", "alt":"valentines-day3"}}]] The letter I want to share with you is not a Valentine, but the most touching love letter I've ever read in my Civil War research, from Sullivan Ballou to his wife, written from Camp Clark, Washington, D.C., July 14, 1861. My very dear Sarah: The indications are very strong that we shall move in a few days—perhaps tomorrow. Lest I should not be able to write again, I feel impelled to write a few lines that may fall under your eye when I shall be no more.   Our movement may be one of a few days' duration and full of pleasure--and it may be one of severe conflict and death to me. Not my will, but thine O God, be done. If it is necessary that I should fall on the battlefield for my country, I am ready. I have no misgivings about, or lack of confidence in, the cause in which I am engaged, and my courage does not halt or falter. I know how strongly American Civilization now leans upon the triumph of the Government, and how great a debt we owe to those who went before us through the blood and suffering of the Revolution. And I am willing--perfectly willing--to lay down all my joys in this life, to help maintain this Government, and to pay that debt . . .   I cannot describe to you my feelings on this calm summer night, when two thousand men are sleeping around me, many of them enjoying the last, perhaps, before that of death . . .   Sarah, my love for you is deathless, it seems to bind me to you with mighty cables that nothing but Omnipotence could break; and yet my love of Country comes over me like a strong wind and bears me irresistibly on with all these chains to the battlefield.   The memories of the blissful moments I have spent with you come creeping over me, and I feel most gratified to God and to you that I have enjoyed them so long. And hard it is for me to give them up and burn to ashes the hopes of future years, when God willing, we might still have lived and loved together and seen our sons grow up to honorable manhood around us. I have, I know, but few and small claims upon Divine Providence, but something whispers to me—perhaps it is the wafted prayer of my little Edgar—that I shall return to my loved ones unharmed. If I do not, my dear Sarah, never forget how much I love you, and when my last breath escapes me on the battlefield, it will whisper your name.   Forgive my many faults, and the many pains I have caused you. How thoughtless and foolish I have oftentimes been! How gladly would I wash out with my tears every little spot upon your happiness, and struggle with all the misfortune of this world, to shield you and my children from harm. But I cannot. I must watch you from the spirit land and hover near you, while you buffet the storms with your precious little freight, and wait with sad patience will we meet to part no more.   But, O Sarah! If the dead can come back to this earth and flit unseen around those they loved, I shall always be near you; in the garish day and in the darkest night--amidst your happiest scenes and gloomiest hours--always, always; and if there be a soft breeze upon your cheek, it shall be my breath; or the cool air fans your throbbing temple, it shall be my spirit passing by.   Sarah, do not mourn me dead; think I am gone and wait for thee, for we shall meet again.   As for my little boys, they will grow as I have done, and never know a father's love and care. Little Willie is too young to remember me long, and my blue-eyed Edgar will keep my frolics with him among the dimmest memories of his childhood. Sarah, I have unlimited confidence in your maternal care and your development of their characters. Tell my two mothers his and hers I call God's blessing upon them. O Sarah, I wait for you there! Come to me, and lead thither my children.   Sullivan Sullivan died a week later, at the First Battle of Bull Run. (If you read Wedded to War, you may remember the scene where the Union army poured back into Washington, defeated and demoralized, starting on p. 140.) Wow. If that doesn't make you want to go hug your loved ones, I don't know what will! [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"760", "attributes":{"class":"media-image aligncenter size-full wp-image-840", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"185", "height":"185", "alt":"valentines-day185"}}]]

[[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1121", "attributes":{"class":"media-image alignleft size-medium wp-image-2650", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"300", "height":"242", "alt":"redpoppy"}}]]As you can image by the title of my novel, Widow of Gettysburg, writing it required extensive research into the condition of wounded soldiers and their treatment. I soon discovered that opium was considered a wonder drug by battlefield surgeons. It was sprinkled on wounds to help slow blood loss, and taken orally to relieve pain and induce sleep. Opium and morphine were the most popular painkillers—but they were also used in the treatment of cholera and sometimes dysentery. In the South, doctors encouraged civilians to grow poppies in their own gardens and bring the seeds to collection centers in order to overcome the blockade-induced shortage, but the plan didn't yield much of a harvest. The most significant incidence of opium abuse in the United States occurred during the Civil War, when an estimated 400,000 soldiers became addicted to the drug. Two of my characters in Widow of Gettysburg struggle with it. The following signs and symptoms helped guide those storylines. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1122", "attributes":{"class":"media-image alignright wp-image-1214 size-medium", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"194", "height":"300", "alt":"Widow cover 3 hi res"}}]]Opium Abuse Side Effects These side-effects depend on factors such as the dose, how the drug is taken, and the individual’s metabolism. In addition, these side-effects depend on the duration of time in which the drug has been taken. Opium abuse brings about side-effects such as: Drowsiness Sedation Depressed or slowed breathing Glazed or red eyes Slurred speech Headaches Confusion Dizziness Small pupils Nausea Sleeping disorders A runny nose Sinus irritation Excessive energy Rapid speed Mania Loss of appetite Mood swings Depression Apathy Slowed reflexes Vomiting Constipation and other gastrointestinal problems Extreme anxiety Restlessness and tension In most cases, side-effects are experienced at the early stages of abuse and decrease as time goes by. Depression was one of the most serious side effects of long-term users, and could lead to suicide. In severe cases, the individual may have a weak pulse, lower blood pressure, reduced heart rate, difficulty or labored breathing, and changes in the color of lips and fingertips. Seizures, convulsions, hallucinations, confusion and psychomotor retardation also take place. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"1123", "attributes":{"class":"media-image alignleft wp-image-1995 size-medium", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"193", "height":"300", "alt":"Spycover"}}]]My research for Spy of Richmond, my fourth novel in the Heroines Behind the Lines series took me into the related world of laudanum, an alcoholic tincture widely taken, which was 10 percent powdered opium. Many women, including the famous Confederate diarist Mary Boykin Chestnut, used it regularly. "I relieved the tedium by taking laudanum," wrote Chestnut in one of her references to the drug. Some took it to achieve a pallid complexion, some to relieve pain, and some to simply calm nerves and encourage sleep. It's easy to imagine the untold thousands of women who would have been attracted to such a drug while loved ones were at war. Unfortunately, laudanum addiction, like opium addiction, could be fatal.

Victorian women turned to Godey's Lady's Book for fashion plates and advice for women on cooking, literature and morality. (See a page from the magazine at this blog post.) But the elderly editor of the women's magazine, Sarah Josepha Hale, had more than hoop skirts and parasols on her mind. [[{"type":"media", "view_mode":"media_large", "fid":"920", "attributes":{"class":"media-image wp-image-2586 size-full", "typeof":"foaf:Image", "style":"", "width":"550", "height":"367", "alt":"godeysfashions"}}]] From Godey's Lady's Book     At the age of 74, Hale wrote a letter to Lincoln on September 28, 1863, urging him to have the "day of our annual Thanksgiving made a National and fixed Union Festival." (Click on the image at left for a larger view.) She explained, "You may have observed that, for some years past, there has been an increasing interest felt in our land to have the Thanksgiving held on the same day, in all the States; it now needs National recognition and authoritive fixation, only, to become permanently, an American custom and institution." Hale had been advocating a national thanksgiving date for 15 years as the editor of Godey's Lady's Book. (The portrait of Hale, below, was done when she was 43 years old.) Yes, the Pilgrims and Native Americans celebrated their harvest with a day of thanksgiving in 1621. George Washington proclaimed Nov. 26, 1789, as a national day of thanksgiving, as well. Since then, each state scheduled its own Thanksgiving holiday at different times, mainly in New England and other Northern states. But President Lincoln agreed with Hale's recommendation and responded to her request almost immediately, unlike several of his predecessors, who ignored her petitions altogether. On October 3, 1863, Lincoln issued his Thanksgiving Proclamation, for the first time setting aside the last Thursday in November as a National Day for giving thanks, setting the precedent for the annual holiday we will celebrate tomorrow. The text of this Proclamation is below. The year that is drawing toward its close has been filled with the blessings of fruitful fields and healthful skies. To these bounties, which are so constantly enjoyed that we are prone to forget the source from which they come, others have been added which are of so extraordinary a nature that they can not fail to penetrate and soften even the heart which is habitually insensible to the ever-watchful providence of Almighty God. In the midst of a civil war of unequaled magnitude and severity, which has sometimes seemed to foreign states to invite and to provoke their aggression, peace has been preserved with all nations, order has been maintained, the laws have been respected and obeyed, and harmony has prevailed everywhere, except in the theater of military conflict, while that theater has been greatly contracted by the advancing armies and navies of the Union. Needful diversions of wealth and of strength from the fields of peaceful industry to the national defense have not arrested the plow, the shuttle, or the ship; the ax has enlarged the borders of our settlements, and the mines, as well as the iron and coal as of our precious metals, have yielded even more abundantly than heretofore. Population has steadily increased notwithstanding the waste that has been made in the camp, the siege, and the battlefield, and the country, rejoicing in the consciousness of augmented strength and vigor, is permitted to expect continuance of years with large increase of freedom.   No human counsel hath devised nor hath any mortal hand worked out these great things. They are the gracious gifts of the Most High God, who, while dealing with us in anger for our sins, hath nevertheless remembered mercy. It has seemed to me fit and proper that they should be solemnly, reverently, and gratefully acknowledged, as with one heart and one voice, by the whole American people. I do therefore invite my fellow-citizens in every part of the United States, and also those who are in foreign lands, to set apart and observe the last Thursday of November next as a day of thanksgiving and praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the heavens. And I recommend to them that while offering up the ascriptions justly due to Him for such singular deliverances and blessings they do also, with humble penitence for our national perverseness and disobedience, commend to His tender care all those who have become widows, orphans, mourners, or sufferers in the lamentable civil strife in which we are unavoidably engaged, and fervently implore the imposition of the Almighty hand to heal the wounds of the nation and to restore it, as soon as may be consistent with the divine purpose, to the full enjoyment of peace, harmony, tranquillity, and union. In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the city of Washington, this 3d day of October, A.D. 1863, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-eighth. Source: Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, edited by Roy P. Basler. Rutgers University Press, 1953. May you all have a truly happy Thanksgiving this year!